Patristic Research

What does Scripture say on the questions that divide Christian traditions, and how did the early church fathers read it? Every conclusion here links to its reasoning and sources.

Please read: this research was produced by an AI assistant. It is purely academic in nature, lacks the guidance of the Holy Spirit, and is not pastoral or ecclesial teaching. Test everything against Scripture (1 Thess 5:21) and with your church. Every conclusion links to its reasoning: see the method, the reasoning and source notes, and the project overview.

In the faith? How fully each tradition holds the first-order doctrines, the gospel core. All 16 first-order doctrines researched.

Catholic holds all 98% 33/33 first-order cells
Orthodox holds with qualifications 97% 33/33 first-order cells because of F12.1 (Salvation by grace through faith in Christ) 2/4
Oriental Orthodox holds with qualifications 98% ⚠ 32/33 first-order cells because of F12.1 (Salvation by grace through faith in Christ) 2/4
Lutheran holds all 99% 33/33 first-order cells
Anglican holds all 99% 33/33 first-order cells
Presbyterian holds all 99% 33/33 first-order cells
Reformed Baptist holds all 99% 32/33 first-order cells
General Baptist holds all 98% 33/33 first-order cells
Anabaptist holds with qualifications 93% 32/33 first-order cells because of F05.2 (Virgin birth and incarnation) 2/4

Weakest-link rule: the band depends on the lowest first-order question, not an average. If every scored first-order question scores at least 3/4 against Scripture, the band is holds all. If any scores below 3/4, it is holds with qualifications, and the questions responsible are named. If any scores 1/4 or below, it is denies one or more. The percentage is the mean and doesn't decide the band, so a lower average can still be "holds all". This marks recognition, not rank. Method · under each tradition's own first-order list.

Most correct: three ways to look at the results

1 · Closeness to Scripture

The site's primary measure: agreement with the grammatical-historical reading of the texts.

1 Lutheran128/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 50/52 · III 45/49) 92% 67/67 d

2 Anglican126/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 50/52 · III 43/49) 92% 66/67 d

3 Reformed Baptist124/134 cells (I 32/33 · II 49/52 · III 43/49) 91% 65/67 d

4 General Baptist116/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 45/52 · III 38/49) 91% 65/67 d

5 Presbyterian129/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 51/52 · III 45/49) 90% 67/67 d

6 Oriental Orthodox⚠ 107/134 cells (I 32/33 · II 42/52 · III 33/49) · low coverage 88% 62/67 d

7 Anabaptist111/134 cells (I 32/33 · II 43/52 · III 36/49) 87% 59/67 d

8 Orthodox118/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 50/52 · III 35/49) 85% 62/67 d

9 Catholic126/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 51/52 · III 42/49) 82% 65/67 d

2 · Closeness to the fathers

Agreement with the patristic verdicts to c. 750, weighted by how early the evidence is.

1 Oriental Orthodox⚠ 115/148 cells (I 31/33 · II 49/61 · III 35/54) · low coverage 94% 61/67 d

2 Orthodox128/148 cells (I 32/33 · II 58/61 · III 38/54) 92% 63/67 d

3 Catholic136/148 cells (I 32/33 · II 59/61 · III 45/54) 88% 65/67 d

4 Anglican136/148 cells (I 32/33 · II 58/61 · III 46/54) 85% 67/67 d

5 Lutheran138/148 cells (I 32/33 · II 58/61 · III 48/54) 83% 67/67 d

6 General Baptist126/148 cells (I 32/33 · II 53/61 · III 41/54) 81% 65/67 d

7 Anabaptist118/148 cells (I 31/33 · II 49/61 · III 38/54) 78% 60/67 d

8 Presbyterian138/148 cells (I 32/33 · II 59/61 · III 47/54) 77% 67/67 d

9 Reformed Baptist133/148 cells (I 31/33 · II 57/61 · III 45/54) 77% 67/67 d

3 · Your lens: weighted average

Set how much Scripture counts against the fathers. This is your lens, not the site's verdict.

Scripture weight: 50%

50% Scripture / 50% fathers

1 Oriental Orthodox⚠ 107/134 cells (I 32/33 · II 42/52 · III 33/49) · low coverage 91% 62/67 d

2 Orthodox118/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 50/52 · III 35/49) 89% 63/67 d

3 Anglican126/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 50/52 · III 43/49) 88% 67/67 d

4 Lutheran128/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 50/52 · III 45/49) 88% 67/67 d

5 General Baptist116/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 45/52 · III 38/49) 86% 65/67 d

6 Catholic126/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 51/52 · III 42/49) 85% 65/67 d

7 Reformed Baptist124/134 cells (I 32/33 · II 49/52 · III 43/49) 84% 67/67 d

8 Presbyterian129/134 cells (I 33/33 · II 51/52 · III 45/49) 84% 67/67 d

9 Anabaptist111/134 cells (I 32/33 · II 43/52 · III 36/49) 83% 60/67 d

Each ranking averages the 67 researched doctrines (148 questions), weighting first-order doctrines 3, second-order 2 and third-order 1; each doctrine counts once, however many questions it has. Faded rows rest on fewer than half the doctrines. Each name shows its coverage: cells scored out of those scorable, by tier (I/II/III; the blended lens shows Scripture coverage). ⚠ marks coverage more than 10 points below the median (93% for Scripture, 90% for the fathers): a ranking based on fewer cells is less certain. How the tiers and lenses work · rankings under each tradition's own tiers · every score with its citation.

Per doctrine: Fathers (percent closeness; blank = not assessed)

Doctrine	Catholic	Orthodox	Oriental Orthodox	Lutheran	Anglican	Presbyterian	Reformed Baptist	General Baptist	Anabaptist
First-order (weight 3)
F01 The Trinity	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F02 Deity of Christ	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F03 True humanity of Christ	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	85
F04 One person, God and man	100	100	100	100	88	88	88	88	63
F05 Virgin birth and incarnation	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	64
F06 Deity and personhood of the Holy Spirit	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F07 Creation out of nothing	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F08 Sin and the need for grace	100	78	100	100	100	100	100	93	93
F09 Christ's saving death	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F10 Bodily resurrection of Christ	100	100	100	100	100	79	100	90	100
F11 Ascension and session	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F12 Salvation by grace through faith in Christ	100	93	93	100	100	100	100	100	93
F13 Return of Christ and final judgement	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F14 General resurrection and eternal life	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F15 Authority and truthfulness of Scripture	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F16 One holy catholic and apostolic Church	100	100	100	85	100	85	75	91	66
Second-order (weight 2)
S01 Nature of justification	55	69	82	67	71	61	61	76	75
S02 Baptism: subjects	86	100	100	86	86	86		14
S03 Baptism: effect	100	100	100	100	100	25	25	25	25
S04 Eucharist: presence	71	100	100	62	41	25	25	25	25
S05 Eucharist: sacrifice	89	100	100	77	83	83	77	83	83
S06 Number and nature of sacraments	64	84	89	56	65	36	36	79	47
S07 Scripture and tradition	67	94	81	75	94	75	67	86	56
S08 Papal primacy and infallibility	38	100	100	74	74	49	49	74	74
S09 Church government	88	100	100	63	88	75	38	88	50
S10 Ordination to the presbyterate	93	100	100	93	93	93	93	75	100
S11 Predestination and election	86	93	93	39	57	50	57	93	93
S12 Extent of the atonement	100	100	100	100	100	81	81	100	100
S13 Perseverance of the saints	100	100	100	92	75	33	33	50	92
S14 Original sin: guilt or corruption	75	85	75	65	75	65	65	75	75
S15 Filioque	50	88	88	50	50	50	50	50
S16 Chalcedonian and miaphysite wording	90	90	60	75	75	75	75	75
S17 Purgatory and prayers for the dead	74	100	83	42	25	25	25	25	25
S18 Invocation of saints and Marian dogmas	74	94	94	86	60	60	60	60	60
S19 Veneration of icons and relics	98	98	98	33	27	27	27	27	27
S20 Penal substitution and satisfaction	100	25	100	85	100	100	100	100	75
S21 Divine simplicity and impassibility	100	88	100	100	100	100	100	100
S22 Marriage, divorce and remarriage	88	62	75	25	88	37	50	50	37
S23 Nature of saving faith	75	75	75	50	50	50	50	50	50
S24 Merit and good works	92	92	100	58	75	75	75	75	100
Third-order (weight 1)
T01 Millennium	75	75	75	75	75	75	75		75
T02 Timing of end-times events	100	100	100	81	100	81	81	91	91
T03 Age of the earth and days of creation	100	100	100	100	100	92	92	100	92
T04 Mode of baptism	25	100	100	48	89	37	64	75	25
T05 Frequency of communion	50	70	100	100	70	100	100	100	70
T06 Atonement models beyond the core	75	96	75	79	75	75	75	75	79
T07 Order of decrees		50	50	50	75	75	75	50
T08 Origin of the soul	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T09 Intermediate state	94	94	94	94	94	94	94	94	94
T10 Final punishment	100	83	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
T11 Universal restoration as a hope	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	91
T12 Spiritual gifts	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T13 Sabbath and Lord's Day	89	100	100	100	89	78	78	78	100
T14 Regulative or normative worship	100	100	100	100	100	50	68	84	84
T15 Liturgical calendar	88	100	100	100	100	50	75	88	75
T16 Clerical celibacy	75	100	100	75	75	75	75	75	75
T17 Fasting rules	88	100	100	63	75	50	50	63	50
T18 Theosis vocabulary	85	100	70	70	70	70	70	70	100
T19 Image of God	94	94	50	50	75	50	50	50	50
T20 Sword, magistracy and oaths	50			50	50	50	50	50	88
T21 Women's ministries beyond the presbyterate	50		100	100	100	100	100	100	100
T22 Israel and the Church	100			100	100	100	100
T23 Admission to the Lord's Table	88	100	100	81	81	81	100	81	100
T24 Liberty of conscience	59	75		75	59	59	75	91	100
T25 Communion in both kinds; reservation and adoration	75	75		50	50	25	25	50
T26 Church discipline and shunning		50		75	88	75	100	75	100
T27 The law in the Christian life	89			100	100	100	100	100

Per doctrine: Your lens (weighted average) (percent closeness; blank = not assessed)

Doctrine	Catholic	Orthodox	Oriental Orthodox	Lutheran	Anglican	Presbyterian	Reformed Baptist	General Baptist	Anabaptist
First-order (weight 3)
F01 The Trinity	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F02 Deity of Christ	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F03 True humanity of Christ	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	86
F04 One person, God and man	100	100	100	100	89	89	89	89	69
F05 Virgin birth and incarnation	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	69
F06 Deity and personhood of the Holy Spirit	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F07 Creation out of nothing	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F08 Sin and the need for grace	96	85	100	100	100	100	100	92	92
F09 Christ's saving death	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F10 Bodily resurrection of Christ	96	96	96	96	96	85	100	91	100
F11 Ascension and session	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F12 Salvation by grace through faith in Christ	94	84	84	100	100	100	100	100	90
F13 Return of Christ and final judgement	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F14 General resurrection and eternal life	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F15 Authority and truthfulness of Scripture	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F16 One holy catholic and apostolic Church	100	100	100	92	100	92	83	91	70
Second-order (weight 2)
S01 Nature of justification	59	66	85	81	83	72	72	79	65
S02 Baptism: subjects	80	88	88	80	80	80		45
S03 Baptism: effect	100	96	96	96	100	46	46	46	42
S04 Eucharist: presence	86	100	100	81	58	38	38	38	25
S05 Eucharist: sacrifice	86	96	92	84	87	87	84	87	87
S06 Number and nature of sacraments	60	84	87	65	71	52	52	85	57
S07 Scripture and tradition	59	76	74	85	97	88	80	93	66
S08 Papal primacy and infallibility	37	95	95	82	82	57	57	82	82
S09 Church government	74	85	85	69	81	88	59	86	63
S10 Ordination to the presbyterate	91	100	100	91	91	91	91	75	100
S11 Predestination and election	87	84	84	63	72	63	72	90	84
S12 Extent of the atonement	97	97	97	97	97	87	87	97	97
S13 Perseverance of the saints	75	75	75	92	75	63	63	63	79
S14 Original sin: guilt or corruption	83	75	75	83	88	83	83	75	83
S15 Filioque	50	94	94	63	63	63	63	63
S16 Chalcedonian and miaphysite wording	95	95	55	88	88	88	88	88
S17 Purgatory and prayers for the dead	62	75	74	58	50	50	50	50	50
S18 Invocation of saints and Marian dogmas	56	78	78	87	80	80	80	80	80
S19 Veneration of icons and relics	80	80	80	53	48	48	48	51	51
S20 Penal substitution and satisfaction	88	38	100	92	100	100	100	100	75
S21 Divine simplicity and impassibility	88	82	88	88	88	88	88	88
S22 Marriage, divorce and remarriage	69	56	69	63	82	69	75	75	69
S23 Nature of saving faith	63	63	63	69	75	75	75	75	75
S24 Merit and good works	79	79	100	71	88	88	88	88	100
Third-order (weight 1)
T01 Millennium	75	75	75	75	75	75	75		75
T02 Timing of end-times events	100	100	100	81	100	81	81	90	90
T03 Age of the earth and days of creation	100	100	100	100	100	93	93	100	93
T04 Mode of baptism	38	96	96	53	90	47	78	88	38
T05 Frequency of communion	50	77	100	100	77	100	100	100	77
T06 Atonement models beyond the core	75	98	88	83	75	75	75	75	83
T07 Order of decrees		63	63	63	75	75	75	63
T08 Origin of the soul	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T09 Intermediate state	95	95	95	95	95	95	95	95	95
T10 Final punishment	100	86	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
T11 Universal restoration as a hope	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	96
T12 Spiritual gifts	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T13 Sabbath and Lord's Day	90	100	100	100	90	81	81	81	100
T14 Regulative or normative worship	96	96	96	96	96	63	80	88	88
T15 Liturgical calendar	81	88	88	100	100	63	75	81	75
T16 Clerical celibacy	66	97	97	84	84	84	84	84	84
T17 Fasting rules	81	88	88	69	75	63	63	69	63
T18 Theosis vocabulary	86	88	78	78	78	78	78	78	100
T19 Image of God	93	93	50	54	75	63	63	63	63
T20 Sword, magistracy and oaths	69			69	69	69	69	69	69
T21 Women's ministries beyond the presbyterate	63		88	88	88	88	88	88	100
T22 Israel and the Church	100			100	100	98	100
T23 Admission to the Lord's Table	81	100	88	91	78	91	100	91	100
T24 Liberty of conscience	46	63		79	59	55	79	95	100
T25 Communion in both kinds; reservation and adoration	53	63	100	73	73	60	60	73	100
T26 Church discipline and shunning		50		75	90	75	100	75	100
T27 The law in the Christian life	88			100	100	100	100	100

Per doctrine: Scripture (percent closeness; blank = not assessed)

Doctrine	Catholic	Orthodox	Oriental Orthodox	Lutheran	Anglican	Presbyterian	Reformed Baptist	General Baptist	Anabaptist
First-order (weight 3)
F01 The Trinity	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F02 Deity of Christ	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F03 True humanity of Christ	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	88
F04 One person, God and man	100	100	100	100	89	89	89	89	75
F05 Virgin birth and incarnation	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	75
F06 Deity and personhood of the Holy Spirit	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F07 Creation out of nothing	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F08 Sin and the need for grace	92	92	100	100	100	100	100	92	92
F09 Christ's saving death	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F10 Bodily resurrection of Christ	92	92	92	92	92	92	100	92	100
F11 Ascension and session	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F12 Salvation by grace through faith in Christ	88	75	75	100	100	100	100	100	88
F13 Return of Christ and final judgement	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F14 General resurrection and eternal life	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F15 Authority and truthfulness of Scripture	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
F16 One holy catholic and apostolic Church	100	100	100	100	100	100	92	92	75
Second-order (weight 2)
S01 Nature of justification	63	63	88	96	96	83	83	81	56
S02 Baptism: subjects	75	75	75	75	75	75		75
S03 Baptism: effect	100	92	92	92	100	67	67	67	58
S04 Eucharist: presence	100	100	100	100	75	50	50	50	25
S05 Eucharist: sacrifice	83	92	83	92	92	92	92	92	92
S06 Number and nature of sacraments	56	84	84	74	78	68	68	91	68
S07 Scripture and tradition	50	58	67	94	100	100	92	100	75
S08 Papal primacy and infallibility	35	90	90	90	90	65	65	90	90
S09 Church government	60	70	70	75	75	100	80	85	75
S10 Ordination to the presbyterate	90	100	100	90	90	90	90	75	100
S11 Predestination and election	88	75	75	88	88	75	88	88	75
S12 Extent of the atonement	93	93	93	93	93	93	93	93	93
S13 Perseverance of the saints	50	50	50	92	75	92	92	75	67
S14 Original sin: guilt or corruption	90	65	75	100	100	100	100	75	90
S15 Filioque	50	100	100	75	75	75	75	75
S16 Chalcedonian and miaphysite wording	100	100	50	100	100	100	100	100
S17 Purgatory and prayers for the dead	50	50	64	75	75	75	75	75	75
S18 Invocation of saints and Marian dogmas	38	63	63	88	100	100	100	100	100
S19 Veneration of icons and relics	63	63	63	73	70	70	70	75	75
S20 Penal substitution and satisfaction	75	50	100	100	100	100	100	100	75
S21 Divine simplicity and impassibility	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
S22 Marriage, divorce and remarriage	50	50	63	100	75	100	100	100	100
S23 Nature of saving faith	50	50	50	88	100	100	100	100	100
S24 Merit and good works	67	67	100	83	100	100	100	100	100
Third-order (weight 1)
T01 Millennium	75	75	75	75	75	75	75		75
T02 Timing of end-times events	100	100	100	80	100	80	80	90	90
T03 Age of the earth and days of creation	100	100	100	100	100	93	93	100	93
T04 Mode of baptism	50	92	92	58	92	58	92	100	50
T05 Frequency of communion	50	83	100	100	83	100	100	100	83
T06 Atonement models beyond the core	75	100	100	88	75	75	75	75	88
T07 Order of decrees		75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T08 Origin of the soul	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T09 Intermediate state	95	95	95	95	95	95	95	95	95
T10 Final punishment	100	89	100	100	100	100	100	100	100
T11 Universal restoration as a hope	100	100	100	100		100	100	100	100
T12 Spiritual gifts	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T13 Sabbath and Lord's Day	92	100	100	100	92	83	83	83	100
T14 Regulative or normative worship	92	92	92	92	92	75	92	92	92
T15 Liturgical calendar	75	75	75	100	100	75		75
T16 Clerical celibacy	56	94	94	94	94	94	94	94	94
T17 Fasting rules	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75	75
T18 Theosis vocabulary	88	75	88	88	88	88	88	88	100
T19 Image of God	92	92	50	58	75	75	75	75	75
T20 Sword, magistracy and oaths	88			88	88	88	88	88	50
T21 Women's ministries beyond the presbyterate	75		75	75	75	75	75	75	100
T22 Israel and the Church	100			100	100	95	100
T23 Admission to the Lord's Table	75		75	100	75	100	100	100	100
T24 Liberty of conscience	33	50		83	58	50	83	100	100
T25 Communion in both kinds; reservation and adoration	30	50	100	95	95	95	95	95	100
T26 Church discipline and shunning		50		75	92	75	100	75	100
T27 The law in the Christian life	88			100	100	100	100	100

The map of doctrines

Christian doctrines are sorted into three tiers (theological triage): first-order doctrines are essential to the gospel, second-order ones divide churches but not salvation, and third-order ones are debated within a single church. Each card is one doctrine; the greyed-out ones are not yet researched, so you can see how much of the map is covered. Cards marked tier contested are ones some traditions place in a different tier.

First-order doctrines weight 3

F01

The Trinity

One God in three co-equal, co-eternal persons.

2 questions F02

Deity of Christ

The Son is true God, of one substance with the Father (Nicaea).

2 questions F03

True humanity of Christ

The Son truly took full human nature (against Docetism and Apollinarianism).

2 questions F04

One person, God and man

Christ is one person, true God and true man, without confusion or division.

2 questions F05

Virgin birth and incarnation

Conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary.

2 questions F06

Deity and personhood of the Holy Spirit

'The Lord, the giver of life' (381).

2 questions F07

Creation out of nothing

God alone is eternal; all else is created and good.

2 questions F08

Sin and the need for grace

All are sinners, cannot save themselves, and need grace (against Pelagius).

3 questions F09

Christ's saving death

Christ died for our sins (1 Cor 15:3) and his death saves; how it saves is S20 and T6.

2 questions F10

Bodily resurrection of Christ

Christ was truly raised in the body.

2 questions F11

Ascension and session

Christ ascended and reigns.

2 questions F12

Salvation by grace through faith in Christ

Salvation is God's gift in Christ, not earned.

2 questions F13

Return of Christ and final judgement

He will come again to judge the living and the dead.

2 questions F14

General resurrection and eternal life

The resurrection of the body and the life everlasting.

2 questions F15

Authority and truthfulness of Scripture

Scripture is God's inspired word.

2 questions F16

One holy catholic and apostolic Church

The Church confessed in the creeds.

2 questions

Second-order doctrines weight 2

S01

Nature of justification

Forensic imputation or infused/transformative righteousness; faith alone?

5 questions · tier contested S02

Baptism: subjects

Infants, or believers only.

2 questions · tier contested S03

Baptism: effect

Regeneration, or sign and seal; necessity.

2 questions S04

Eucharist: presence

Transubstantiation, mystery, sacramental union, spiritual presence, memorial.

2 questions · tier contested S05

Eucharist: sacrifice

Is the Mass or Liturgy a sacrifice?

2 questions S06

Number and nature of sacraments

Seven, two, or ordinances; the other rites.

4 questions S07

Scripture and tradition

Sola scriptura, or Scripture with tradition and magisterium; canon.

3 questions S08

Papal primacy and infallibility

The Petrine office and Vatican I.

2 questions · tier contested S09

Church government

Episcopal, presbyterian, congregational; apostolic succession.

2 questions · tier contested S10

Ordination to the presbyterate

Classic positions on who may be ordained.

2 questions S11

Predestination and election

Unconditional or conditional; free choice.

2 questions S12

Extent of the atonement

Particular or general.

2 questions · tier contested S13

Perseverance of the saints

Can a true believer finally fall away?

2 questions S14

Original sin: guilt or corruption

Inherited guilt, or inherited mortality and corruption.

3 questions S15

Filioque

The procession of the Holy Spirit.

2 questions S16

Chalcedonian and miaphysite wording

'In two natures' or 'one incarnate nature'; two wills.

2 questions · tier contested S17

Purgatory and prayers for the dead

Purification after death; praying for the departed.

2 questions S18

Invocation of saints and Marian dogmas

Asking saints to pray; Immaculate Conception, Assumption.

3 questions · tier contested S19

Veneration of icons and relics

Honouring or rejecting images and relics.

7 questions S20

Penal substitution and satisfaction

Christ bore the penalty or satisfied divine justice in our place.

2 questions S21

Divine simplicity and impassibility

God without parts or passions; essence and energies.

2 questions S22

Marriage, divorce and remarriage

May a marriage be dissolved for adultery, with remarriage?

2 questions S23

Nature of saving faith

Assent, trust, and the place of love in justifying faith.

2 questions S24

Merit and good works

Whether the works of the justified merit eternal life; whether works are necessary for salvation.

2 questions

Third-order doctrines weight 1

T01

Millennium

Amillennial, premillennial, postmillennial.

2 questions T02

Timing of end-times events

Tribulation and rapture questions, preterism.

2 questions T03

Age of the earth and days of creation

Literal days or other readings.

2 questions T04

Mode of baptism

Immersion, pouring, sprinkling.

2 questions T05

Frequency of communion

Weekly, monthly, quarterly.

2 questions T06

Atonement models beyond the core

Ransom, Christus Victor, recapitulation: emphasis and models.

2 questions T07

Order of decrees

Supra- or infralapsarianism.

2 questions T08

Origin of the soul

Traducianism or creationism.

2 questions T09

Intermediate state

The soul's state between death and resurrection.

2 questions T10

Final punishment

Eternal conscious punishment or annihilation.

2 questions T11

Universal restoration as a hope

Gregory of Nyssa's hope, held as hope not dogma.

2 questions T12

Spiritual gifts

Cessation or continuation.

2 questions T13

Sabbath and Lord's Day

Strict sabbatarian or not.

2 questions T14

Regulative or normative worship

Exclusive psalmody, instruments.

2 questions T15

Liturgical calendar

Observing feasts and seasons.

2 questions T16

Clerical celibacy

Discipline, not dogma.

2 questions T17

Fasting rules

Practice and discipline.

2 questions T18

Theosis vocabulary

Deification language or union with Christ.

2 questions T19

Image of God

Is the image lost or marred; original righteousness.

2 questions T20

Sword, magistracy and oaths

May Christians bear the sword, hold office and swear oaths?

2 questions T21

Women's ministries beyond the presbyterate

Deaconesses; women baptizing and teaching.

2 questions T22

Israel and the Church

Future conversion of Israel; the end of the ceremonial law.

2 questions T23

Admission to the Lord's Table

Who may receive: the baptized, the examined, infants?

2 questions T24

Liberty of conscience

Church precepts and the conscience; coercion in religion.

2 questions T25

Communion in both kinds; reservation and adoration

The cup for the laity; reserving and adoring the consecrated elements.

2 questions T26

Church discipline and shunning

Who excommunicates; avoiding the excommunicated.

2 questions T27

The law in the Christian life

Whether the moral law binds Christians; whether the justified keep it perfectly.

2 questions

Shaped by

How much of each tradition's own confessional emphasis falls on first-, second- and third-order doctrines. Each doctrine gets 0–2 from the tradition's confessions, and each value is cited. This describes the tradition; it does not grade it. Ties among the top three are listed in tier order (S before T), then by number.

Catholic 1st 33% · 2nd 60% · 3rd 7% (58 points over 46 doctrines) Top distinctives: S01 Nature of justification (2/2, Trent VI); S06 Number and nature of sacraments (2/2, Trent VII, XIV, XXIV); S04 Eucharist: presence (2/2, Trent XIII)

Orthodox 1st 42% · 2nd 47% · 3rd 11% (45 points over 45 doctrines) Top distinctives: S19 Veneration of icons and relics (2/2, Nicaea II; Triumph of Orthodoxy); S18 Invocation of saints and Marian dogmas (2/2, Nicaea II; Theotokos in the liturgy); S15 Filioque (2/2, anti-filioque polemic; Photius)

Oriental Orthodox 1st 54% · 2nd 34% · 3rd 11% (35 points over 42 doctrines) Top distinctives: S16 Chalcedonian and miaphysite wording (2/2, anti-Chalcedonian identity (Severus)); S18 Invocation of saints and Marian dogmas (1/2, liturgical commemorations); S04 Eucharist: presence (1/2, liturgy)

Lutheran 1st 37% · 2nd 46% · 3rd 17% (52 points over 49 doctrines) Top distinctives: S01 Nature of justification (2/2, AC IV; Smalcald II.1 'first and chief article'); S04 Eucharist: presence (2/2, AC X; FC VII); S03 Baptism: effect (2/2, AC IX; Small Catechism IV)

Anglican 1st 39% · 2nd 51% · 3rd 10% (49 points over 46 doctrines) Top distinctives: S01 Nature of justification (2/2, Art. XI); S19 Veneration of icons and relics (2/2, Art. XXII; Homily against Peril of Idolatry); S05 Eucharist: sacrifice (2/2, Art. XXXI)

Presbyterian 1st 32% · 2nd 44% · 3rd 24% (62 points over 53 doctrines) Top distinctives: S07 Scripture and tradition (2/2, WCF I); S11 Predestination and election (2/2, WCF III); S01 Nature of justification (2/2, WCF XI)

Reformed Baptist 1st 33% · 2nd 43% · 3rd 23% (60 points over 50 doctrines) Top distinctives: S07 Scripture and tradition (2/2, 1689 1); S11 Predestination and election (2/2, 1689 3); S01 Nature of justification (2/2, 1689 11)

General Baptist 1st 49% · 2nd 41% · 3rd 10% (39 points over 40 doctrines) Top distinctives: S06 Number and nature of sacraments (2/2, SC 1660 art. 12 laying on of hands); S02 Baptism: subjects (2/2, SC 1660 art. 11); S11 Predestination and election (2/2, SC 1660 art. 8; Orthodox Creed 9)

Anabaptist 1st 50% · 2nd 29% · 3rd 21% (34 points over 45 doctrines) Top distinctives: S02 Baptism: subjects (2/2, Schleitheim 1; Dordrecht VII); T20 Sword, magistracy and oaths (2/2, Dordrecht XIV–XV; Schleitheim 6–7); T26 Church discipline and shunning (2/2, Schleitheim 2; Dordrecht XVI–XVII)

first-ordersecond-orderthird-order

The research at a glance

For each researched doctrine: what Scripture says, what the fathers (to about AD 750) say, and where they agree or diverge. Generated from the research data, so new doctrines appear here as they are added. How much weight to give Scripture against the fathers or church tradition is left to you: see Scripture and tradition for each tradition’s view of authority, and where tiers are contested for how the rankings change under each tradition’s own tiers.

First-order doctrines 16 of 16 researched · all 16

F01 The Trinity

Scripture: Father, Son and Spirit are named together as the one God (Matt 28:19; 2 Cor 13:14).
The fathers: From Ignatius to the councils: one God in three co-equal persons.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-tri-s1, tertullian-f01x-s1 · all 2 questions

F02 Deity of Christ

Scripture: Jesus is called God (John 1:1; 20:28; Titus 2:13) and is worshipped.
The fathers: From Ignatius (‘our God, Jesus Christ’) to Nicaea, the Son is true God.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-f02-s1, ignatius-f02-s2 · all 2 questions

F03 True humanity of Christ

Scripture: The Word became flesh, like us in every way except sin (John 1:14; Heb 2:17; 4:15).
The fathers: From Ignatius (’truly born, and ate and drank’) to Gregory (’not assumed, not healed’), Christ is fully human.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-f03-s1, gregory-nazianzen-f03-s2 · all 2 questions

F04 One person, God and man

Scripture: One subject is truly God and truly man (John 1:14; Col 2:9; Heb 4:15).
The fathers: One person, fully God and fully man; after 451 the wording splits between ’two natures’ and ‘one incarnate nature’.
Agree / diverge: Agree on substance.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-chr-s1, ephesus-f04x-s1 · all 2 questions

F05 Virgin birth and incarnation

Scripture: Matthew and Luke both say Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit in the virgin Mary.
The fathers: Ignatius and Justin already confess it.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-f05-s1, ignatius-f05-s3 · all 2 questions

F06 Deity and personhood of the Holy Spirit

Scripture: The Spirit wills, teaches and can be lied to, and lying to him is lying to God (Acts 5:3–4).
The fathers: The creed of 381: the Spirit is ’the Lord and Giver of life’, worshipped with the Father and the Son.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: constantinople-i-f06-s1, irenaeus-f06-s1 · all 2 questions

F07 Creation out of nothing

Scripture: Everything was made through the Word (John 1:3), not from pre-existing matter (Heb 11:3).
The fathers: From Hermas on: God ‘made all things out of nothing’.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: hermas-f07-s1, irenaeus-f07-s2 · all 2 questions

F08 Sin and the need for grace

Scripture: All have sinned (Rom 3:23); no one comes to Christ unless drawn (John 6:44).
The fathers: A real fall passed death and corruption to all; the Western councils say grace precedes even the beginning of faith.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-osn-s1, augustine-sal-s1, augustine-f08x-s1 · all 3 questions

F09 Christ's saving death

Scripture: ‘Christ died for our sins’ is ‘of first importance’ (1 Cor 15:3).
The fathers: From Clement and Ignatius: Christ’s blood was shed ‘for our salvation’.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: clement-of-rome-f09-s1, chrysostom-f09-s1 · all 2 questions

F10 Bodily resurrection of Christ

Scripture: The risen Christ has ‘flesh and bones’ (Luke 24:39), and without the resurrection faith is futile (1 Cor 15:17).
The fathers: Ignatius: ‘after His resurrection also He was still possessed of flesh’.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-f10-s1, ignatius-f10-s2 · all 2 questions

F11 Ascension and session

Scripture: Christ was taken up and is seated at God’s right hand (Acts 1; Eph 1:20).
The fathers: Polycarp and Irenaeus confess his ascension ‘in the flesh’ and his throne at the Father’s right hand.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: polycarp-f11-s1, clement-of-rome-f11-s1 · all 2 questions

F12 Salvation by grace through faith in Christ

Scripture: Salvation is a gift, not a wage (Rom 4:4–5; Eph 2:8–9).
The fathers: No works come before being justified; it is God’s free grace.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: clement-of-rome-s1, ignatius-f12x-s1 · all 2 questions

F13 Return of Christ and final judgement

Scripture: Christ will come again visibly and judge all (Acts 1:11; Matt 25:31–46).
The fathers: The Didache and Polycarp expect him ‘coming upon the clouds’ as ‘Judge of the living and the dead’.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-f13-s1, didache-f13-s2 · all 2 questions

F14 General resurrection and eternal life

Scripture: The dead will be raised bodily (1 Cor 15; John 5:28–29).
The fathers: The fathers confess the resurrection of the same flesh.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-aft-s3, irenaeus-f14x-s1 · all 2 questions

F15 Authority and truthfulness of Scripture

Scripture: Scripture is ‘God-breathed’ and ‘cannot be broken’ (2 Tim 3:16; John 10:35).
The fathers: Clement: ’the true utterances of the Holy Spirit’; Augustine: its authors were ‘completely free from error’.
Agree / diverge: Fully agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: clement-of-rome-f15-s1, irenaeus-f15-s2 · all 2 questions

F16 One holy catholic and apostolic Church

Scripture: There is one body of Christ, built on the apostles (Eph 2:20; 4:4).
The fathers: Ignatius first speaks of ’the Catholic Church’; Cyprian: ’no one can have God for his Father who has not the Church for his mother'.
Agree / diverge: Agree on the confession; the fathers tie it more closely to the visible communion.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-f16-s1, nicaea-i-f16-s1 · all 2 questions

Second-order doctrines 24 of 24 researched · all 24

S01 Nature of justification tier contested

Scripture: Paul’s ‘justify’ is a legal declaration; works are excluded as its ground (Rom 4:4–5).
The fathers: The fathers hold declaring and making righteous together, tied to baptism.
Agree / diverge: Partly diverge.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: justin-martyr-s2, augustine-s1, john-of-damascus-s1 · all 5 questions

S02 Baptism: subjects tier contested

Scripture: No text explicitly commands or forbids infant baptism.
The fathers: Infant baptism is attested from about AD 200; some fathers advised delay.
Agree / diverge: Fathers settle what Scripture leaves open.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: cyprian-bap-s1, cyprian-s02x-s1 · all 2 questions

S03 Baptism: effect

Scripture: Several texts tie new birth and forgiveness to baptism (John 3:5; Acts 2:38; Titus 3:5).
The fathers: Baptism is the ordinary means of regeneration; martyrdom is an exception to its necessity.
Agree / diverge: Largely agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: justin-martyr-bap-s1, cyril-of-jerusalem-bap-s1 · all 2 questions

S04 Eucharist: presence tier contested

Scripture: ‘This is my body’ (Mark 14:22); the bread is a participation in Christ’s body (1 Cor 10:16).
The fathers: A real, objective presence; the mode was not defined.
Agree / diverge: Agree on real presence.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-euc-s1, ambrose-euc-s1 · all 2 questions

S05 Eucharist: sacrifice

Scripture: Christ was offered once for all (Heb 10:10–14).
The fathers: The fathers call the Eucharist a true sacrifice (Mal 1:11), without later propitiatory precision.
Agree / diverge: Partly diverge.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-euc-s1, didache-s05x-s1 · all 2 questions

S06 Number and nature of sacraments

Scripture: Acts shows laying on of hands; James 5 commands anointing the sick.
The fathers: The rites existed early; seven sacraments as a system came later.
Agree / diverge: Mostly agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-osr-s1, tertullian-osr-s3, chrysostom-osr-s1 · all 4 questions

S07 Scripture and tradition

Scripture: Scripture is God-breathed and sufficient (2 Tim 3:16–17).
The fathers: Scripture is the supreme proof, read within the rule of faith; canons differ East and West.
Agree / diverge: Largely agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-sct-s1, athanasius-sct-s3, irenaeus-sct-s3 · all 3 questions

S08 Papal primacy and infallibility tier contested

Scripture: Peter led the apostles but was corrected and was a fellow elder (Gal 2; 1 Pet 5:1).
The fathers: Rome had a primacy of honour; universal jurisdiction is absent; Gregory the Great rejected ‘universal bishop’.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: clement-of-rome-pap-s1, cyprian-pap-s1 · all 2 questions

S09 Church government tier contested

Scripture: In the New Testament ‘bishop’ and ’elder’ name one office, held by several men in each church (Acts 20:17, 28; Titus 1:5–7).
The fathers: Clement attests succession; Ignatius already has one bishop over presbyters and deacons; Jerome later says bishops and presbyters were originally the same.
Agree / diverge: Partly diverge: the fathers quickly adopt a single bishop; Scripture shows plural elder-bishops.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: clement-of-rome-s09-s1, nicaea-i-s09-s1 · all 2 questions

S10 Ordination to the presbyterate

Scripture: Paul restricts the teaching and ruling office to men (1 Tim 2:12; 3:2); Phoebe serves as a deacon (Rom 16:1).
The fathers: No father admits women to the priesthood; deaconesses existed in parts of the East.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-s10-s1, nicaea-i-s10-s2 · all 2 questions

S11 Predestination and election

Scripture: Election rests on God’s purpose (Rom 9:11–16; Eph 1:5).
The fathers: Free choice is universally affirmed; predestination is split between Augustine and the earlier foreknowledge view.
Agree / diverge: Partly diverge.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: justin-martyr-sal-s1, augustine-sal-s2 · all 2 questions

S12 Extent of the atonement tier contested

Scripture: Scripture says Christ died for his sheep and church, and also ‘for all’ and ’the whole world’ (1 John 2:2).
The fathers: The fathers say Christ suffered ‘on behalf of all’; none in our sources limits the atonement to the elect.
Agree / diverge: Scripture has texts for both; the fathers lean universal.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: athanasius-s12-s1, chrysostom-s12-s1 · all 2 questions

S13 Perseverance of the saints

Scripture: Scripture pairs promises of preservation with real warnings.
The fathers: The fathers taught that the regenerate can fall away.
Agree / diverge: Partly diverge.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: augustine-sal-s3, augustine-s13x-s1 · all 2 questions

S14 Original sin: guilt or corruption

Scripture: Through one man sin and death came to all (Rom 5:12–19).
The fathers: East: inherited corruption and death; West: also inherited guilt (Augustine).
Agree / diverge: Emphasis differs.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: cyprian-osn-s1, augustine-osn-s2, chrysostom-osn-s1 · all 3 questions

S15 Filioque

Scripture: The Spirit ‘proceeds from the Father’ and is sent by the Son (John 15:26).
The fathers: East: from the Father through the Son; Augustine: also from the Son.
Agree / diverge: Scripture matches the Eastern wording.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: constantinople-i-tri-s1, ephesus-s15x-s1 · all 2 questions

S16 Chalcedonian and miaphysite wording tier contested

Scripture: Scripture teaches one Christ fully God and man, but uses neither nature formula; Gethsemane shows a human will.
The fathers: Chalcedon vs the Cyrilline formula split after 451; Constantinople III confesses two wills.
Agree / diverge: Formula open; two wills supported.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: chalcedon-chr-s1, gregory-nazianzen-chr-s1 · all 2 questions

S17 Purgatory and prayers for the dead

Scripture: Scripture gives no clear basis for purgatory or prayers for the dead (2 Macc 12 is deuterocanonical).
The fathers: Prayers for the dead from about 200; purification after death from Augustine.
Agree / diverge: Diverge.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-aft-s2, augustine-aft-s2 · all 2 questions

S18 Invocation of saints and Marian dogmas tier contested

Scripture: The departed saints are alive and the martyrs pray (Rev 6:10), but Scripture never shows anyone asking them for prayer; it is silent on Mary’s conception and end.
The fathers: The martyrs were honoured from the 2nd century and their intercession sought in the liturgy by the 4th; Mary’s perpetual virginity was the consensus by then; the Marian dogmas are later.
Agree / diverge: Diverge: the practices are early but post-biblical; the Marian dogmas lack both.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: martyrdom-of-polycarp-s18-s1, protevangelium-s18-s1, augustine-s18-s1 · all 3 questions

S19 Veneration of icons and relics

Scripture: Scripture permits some made images but forbids bowing to them (Exod 20:5).
The fathers: Relics were honoured from about 155; icons were settled only in 787, after early opposition.
Agree / diverge: Diverge.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: martyrdom-of-polycarp-rel-s1, jerome-rel-s1, augustine-rel-s1 · all 7 questions

S20 Penal substitution and satisfaction

Scripture: Christ bore our sins in our place (Isa 53; 2 Cor 5:21; 1 Pet 2:24).
The fathers: Substitution is widely present; the satisfaction of God’s law, not honour-satisfaction.
Agree / diverge: Largely agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: justin-martyr-atn-s1, athanasius-atn-s1 · all 2 questions

S21 Divine simplicity and impassibility

Scripture: Scripture says God does not change like a man and that Christ suffered in the flesh; it never defines simplicity, which is inferred from God’s unity and unchangeableness.
The fathers: From Irenaeus on, God is ‘simple, uncompounded’; from Ignatius on, the impassible God suffers in Christ’s flesh.
Agree / diverge: Agree: the fathers spell out what Scripture implies.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-s21-s1, ignatius-s21-s1 · all 2 questions

S22 Marriage, divorce and remarriage

Scripture: Jesus allows divorce for sexual immorality (Matt 19:9), and Paul frees a believer deserted by an unbelieving spouse; whether remarriage follows is debated, though the setting favours it.
The fathers: The earliest fathers allowed separation for adultery but not remarriage; by the 4th century Basil tolerated some remarriage, while Augustine forbade it.
Agree / diverge: Diverge: the early fathers are stricter than Matthew’s exception.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: hermas-s22-s1, tertullian-s22-s1 · all 2 questions

S23 Nature of saving faith

Scripture: Faith includes believing the truth and relying on Christ; bare belief, like the demons’, does not save; faith works through love.
The fathers: Clement defined faith as ’the assent of piety’; Augustine said believing in Christ means loving him and being joined to him.
Agree / diverge: Partly agree: both reject bare assent, but they place love differently.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: clement-of-alexandria-s23-s1, augustine-s23-s3 · all 2 questions

S24 Merit and good works

Scripture: Eternal life is God’s free gift (Rom 6:23), yet God rewards works (Matt 5:12) and holiness is required (Heb 12:14).
The fathers: Ignatius: works receive recompense; Augustine: God crowns his own gifts; saving faith works by love.
Agree / diverge: Agree that works are necessary and rewarded; differ on the word ‘merit’.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-s24-s1, polycarp-s24-s1 · all 2 questions

Third-order doctrines 27 of 27 researched · all 27

T01 Millennium

Scripture: Only Rev 20 mentions a thousand-year reign, and it can be read as future or present.
The fathers: Papias, Justin and Irenaeus expected an earthly reign; Justin admitted good Christians disagreed; Augustine read it as the present reign of the Church.
Agree / diverge: Both open.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-t01-s1, augustine-t01-s2 · all 2 questions

T02 Timing of end-times events

Scripture: The elect are gathered ‘after the tribulation’ (Matt 24:29–31), after the man of lawlessness appears (2 Thess 2:3).
The fathers: The Didache expects the church to face the ‘world-deceiver’ before the Lord comes on the clouds.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-t02-s1, irenaeus-t02-s1 · all 2 questions

T03 Age of the earth and days of creation

Scripture: Genesis 1 has six numbered days with evening and morning, and Exodus 20:11 rests the Sabbath on them.
The fathers: The fathers thought the world under 6000 years old; Basil took the days as ordinary days, Augustine as an instantaneous creation described in days.
Agree / diverge: Mostly open.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: basil-t03-s1, augustine-t03-s3 · all 2 questions

T04 Mode of baptism

Scripture: The word and the burial imagery favour immersion (Rom 6:4).
The fathers: Threefold immersion was the norm; pouring was allowed in need.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-bap-s1, didache-t04x-s1 · all 2 questions

T05 Frequency of communion

Scripture: The first Christians gathered on the first day of the week ’to break bread’ (Acts 20:7).
The fathers: The Didache and Justin show the Supper every Sunday, with all present receiving.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-t05-s1, cyprian-t05-s1 · all 2 questions

T06 Atonement models beyond the core

Scripture: Christ’s death is a victory, ransom and sacrifice (Col 2:15; Mark 10:45).
The fathers: Victory and recapitulation are pervasive; the ransom-to-the-devil idea was disputed.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-atn-s2, irenaeus-atn-s1 · all 2 questions

T07 Order of decrees

Scripture: Scripture teaches election before creation (Eph 1:4) but does not order God’s decrees.
The fathers: The fathers never discussed it.
Agree / diverge: Not applicable.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: augustine-t07-s1 · all 2 questions

T08 Origin of the soul

Scripture: Scripture says God gives the spirit (Eccl 12:7) but does not say how each soul begins.
The fathers: Tertullian held the soul passes from the parents; Augustine could not decide.
Agree / diverge: Both open.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-t08-s1, justin-martyr-t08-s1 · all 2 questions

T09 Intermediate state

Scripture: The dead are conscious with Christ or in torment (Luke 16; Phil 1:23).
The fathers: A conscious intermediate state of rest or affliction.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-aft-s1, augustine-t09x-s1 · all 2 questions

T10 Final punishment

Scripture: Jesus speaks of eternal punishment (Matt 25:46).
The fathers: Eternal punishment was the consensus; restoration a minority; annihilation negligible.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-aft-s1, augustine-t10x-s1 · all 2 questions

T11 Universal restoration as a hope

Scripture: Jesus sets ’eternal punishment’ beside ’eternal life’ (Matt 25:46).
The fathers: Origen and Gregory of Nyssa hoped all would be restored; most fathers did not, and the Origenist form was condemned in 553.
Agree / diverge: Agree against it as doctrine.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: gregory-of-nyssa-t11-s1, constantinople-553-t11-s1 · all 2 questions

T12 Spiritual gifts

Scripture: Paul says prophecy and tongues cease ‘when the perfect comes’ (1 Cor 13:10) but does not say when.
The fathers: Irenaeus reports prophecy, tongues and healings in his day; Chrysostom says they had ceased by his.
Agree / diverge: Both open.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-t12-s1, irenaeus-t12-s4 · all 2 questions

T13 Sabbath and Lord's Day

Scripture: Christians met on the first day (Acts 20:7); Paul calls the Sabbath a shadow fulfilled in Christ (Col 2:16–17).
The fathers: Ignatius: Christians ’no longer observing the Sabbath, but living in the observance of the Lord’s Day'.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-t13-s1, ignatius-t13-s2 · all 2 questions

T14 Regulative or normative worship

Scripture: Scripture forbids self-made worship (Col 2:23) yet leaves order to the church (1 Cor 14:40).
The fathers: Tertullian and Basil accepted customs with no explicit Scripture command.
Agree / diverge: Fathers normative; Scripture open.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-t14-s1, eusebius-t14-s1 · all 2 questions

T15 Liturgical calendar

Scripture: Paul calls Christ ‘our Passover’ and says ’let us keep the feast’ (1 Cor 5:7–8), but leaves days to conscience (Rom 14:5).
The fathers: Polycarp kept the yearly Pascha as he had with the apostle John.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: eusebius-t15-s1, eusebius-t15-s2 · all 2 questions

T16 Clerical celibacy

Scripture: Elders are ‘husband of one wife’ (1 Tim 3:2), and Peter had a wife (1 Cor 9:5).
The fathers: Married clergy were normal; at Nicaea Paphnutius defended them; the West later required continence.
Agree / diverge: Agree on permission.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: socrates-t16-s1, neocaesarea-t16-s1 · all 2 questions

T17 Fasting rules

Scripture: Jesus expects his followers to fast (Matt 6:16; 9:15) but sets no days.
The fathers: The Didache sets Wednesday and Friday fasts.
Agree / diverge: Fathers add fixed days.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-t17-s1, didache-t17-s2 · all 2 questions

T18 Theosis vocabulary

Scripture: Believers become ‘partakers of the divine nature’ (2 Pet 1:4) and are transformed into Christ’s image.
The fathers: Irenaeus and Athanasius: Christ became what we are so that we might become what he is.
Agree / diverge: Agree on substance.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-t18-s1, basil-t18-s1 · all 2 questions

T19 Image of God

Scripture: Fallen people still bear God’s image (Gen 9:6; Jas 3:9), and it is renewed in Christ ‘in true righteousness and holiness’ (Eph 4:24).
The fathers: Irenaeus: the image remains but the likeness was lost; Athanasius: the Word came to re-create the image.
Agree / diverge: Agree on T19.1; T19.2 is framed differently.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-t19-s1, athanasius-t19-s2 · all 2 questions

T20 Sword, magistracy and oaths

Scripture: Rulers bear the sword as God’s servants (Rom 13:4); soldiers are not told to resign (Luke 3:14); Jesus forbids casual oaths, but God and Paul swear solemnly.
The fathers: Origen said Christians pray rather than fight, and Justin read ‘swear not at all’ strictly; Augustine allowed both.
Agree / diverge: Diverge: the earliest fathers are stricter than Scripture’s examples.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: origen-t20-s1, justin-martyr-t20-s1 · all 2 questions

T21 Women's ministries beyond the presbyterate

Scripture: Phoebe is a ‘deacon’ of her church (Rom 16:1); Paul restricts women’s public teaching (1 Tim 2:12) but expects them to pray and prophesy.
The fathers: Deaconesses appear by the 4th century; Tertullian and the Apostolic Constitutions forbid women to teach in church or baptize.
Agree / diverge: Agree broadly.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: nicaea-i-t21-s1, tertullian-t21-s1 · all 2 questions

T22 Israel and the Church

Scripture: Paul expects that ‘all Israel will be saved’ (Rom 11:26) and says the ceremonial law was a shadow fulfilled in Christ (Col 2:17).
The fathers: Ignatius and Justin say the law has ended and Christians are the true Israel; Augustine reports a common hope that the Jews will turn to Christ.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: augustine-t22-s1, ignatius-t22-s1 · all 2 questions

T23 Admission to the Lord's Table

Scripture: Each must ’examine himself’ before eating (1 Cor 11:28); Scripture does not say whether baptized infants share the meal.
The fathers: The Didache admits only the baptized; Justin only believers living as Christians; Cyprian shows infants given the cup.
Agree / diverge: Agree on fencing; Scripture silent on infants.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: didache-t23-s1, cyprian-t23-s1 · all 2 questions

T24 Liberty of conscience

Scripture: Jesus rejects ’the commandments of men’ as doctrine (Matt 15:9) and leaves the tares until the harvest (Matt 13:30); the church has no civil sword.
The fathers: Tertullian and Lactantius said religion cannot be compelled; Augustine later defended compelling the Donatists.
Agree / diverge: Agree early; later divergence.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: ignatius-t24-s1, tertullian-t24-s1 · all 2 questions

T25 Communion in both kinds; reservation and adoration

Scripture: ‘Drink of it, all of you’ (Matt 26:27); the Supper is given to be eaten and drunk.
The fathers: Justin: deacons give bread and wine to each and carry portions to the absent; Augustine: no one eats that flesh without first worshipping.
Agree / diverge: Agree on the cup; Scripture is silent on reservation.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: justin-t25-s1, justin-t25-s1 · all 2 questions

T26 Church discipline and shunning

Scripture: ‘Tell it to the church’ (Matt 18:17); ’not even to eat with such a one’ (1 Cor 5:11), yet ‘warn him as a brother’ (2 Thess 3:15).
The fathers: Tertullian: the sinner is severed from the congregation’s prayer and fellowship; John and Polycarp avoided notorious heretics.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: tertullian-t26-s1, irenaeus-t26-s1 · all 2 questions

T27 The law in the Christian life

Scripture: Christ did not abolish the law (Matt 5:17), yet ‘if we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves’ (1 John 1:8).
The fathers: Irenaeus: the Decalogue remains with us; Carthage 418: the saints truly sin.
Agree / diverge: Agree.

Go deeper: Doctrine page → Reasoning → Sources: irenaeus-t27-s1, carthage-t27-s1 · all 2 questions

How to go deeper

Every doctrine sits in a tier and is built in three layers, and each links to the one beneath it:

Doctrine page: the research questions, a verdict for each with a confidence level, and how nine traditions (Catholic, Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian, Reformed Baptist, General Baptist and Anabaptist) developed after 750.
Reasoning: numbered steps for each verdict, with the weighing made explicit (which readings were considered and why one was preferred).
Sources: notes on each father and council, citing the exact passage, and exegesis of the key Scripture texts in Greek and Hebrew.

New to the vocabulary? Start with the glossary. For how the closeness measures are calculated, see the method and every score with its citation. The project README and conventions describe the sources and format.