Moved here from notes/reasoning/icons.md in the tier migration. The per-question reasoning now lives on each doctrine’s reasoning page: S19.5 · S19.6 · S19.7.

Icons and images (through Nicaea II, 787): reasoning steps

Verdicts: categories/icons.md. Weighing criteria as in justification reasoning: Scripture in context and original language; each father’s polemical setting; date and breadth of witness; explicit beats inferred; unverified texts carry no weight.

Post-750 development by tradition

Catholic

Trent XXV (Waterworth, verified): images “are to be had and retained” and given “due honour and veneration … not that any divinity, or virtue, is believed to be in them … but because the honour which is shown them is referred to the prototypes”. Follows Nicaea II. Early Western hesitation is secondary-attested: the Carolingian Libri Carolini (c. 790s; Capitulare de imaginibus, associated with Theodulf) and the Council of Frankfurt (794) rejected Nicaea II’s teaching on image veneration while allowing images as ornament and teaching aids (standard handbook account; primary Latin not rechecked in this pass).

Orthodox

The Triumph of Orthodoxy (843) restored the icons. The tradition follows Nicaea II and John of Damascus fully.

Lutheran

Lutherans keep images as teaching aids, without veneration. Luther opposed Karlstadt’s iconoclasm in Against the Heavenly Prophets (1525; WA 18:37–125): the decisive issue is worship and trust in images, not their physical presence; images may remain as memorials once removed from the heart by the Word (verified in summary against the known work; English excerpt collections and the 1525 German edition). Partial agreement on I1, departs on I2.

Presbyterian

WCF XXI.1 (opc.org, verified): God “may not be worshiped … under any visible representation”. Sides with Epiphanius and the iconoclasts. Rejects Nicaea II.

Oriental Orthodox

Sources: Oriental Orthodox confessional sources. Classic formulations only.

• I1 (fathers 4/4; Scripture 3/4): Shenouda III, Comparative Theology, ‘Pictures and Icons’: icons kept for their spiritual benefit; ‘In venerating pictures, we are in effect venerating their owners’ (verified).
• I2 (fathers 3/4; Scripture 1/4): Shenouda III, Comparative Theology: ‘When we bow down before the cross, we bow down … “to Him who is crucified on it”. The commandment “You shall not bow down to them or serve them” does not apply to us at all when we do these things’ (verified).

Anglican

Sources: Anglican confessional sources. Classic formulations only.

• I1 (fathers 1/4; Scripture 2/4): Homily against Peril of Idolatry, part 3: ‘all images of Christ and his saints also were forbidden by God’s word’ in churches (verified).
• I2 (fathers 2/4; Scripture 4/4): Art. XXII: adoration of images ‘a fond thing vainly invented’.
• I3 (fathers 3/4; Scripture n/a): The Homily against Peril of Idolatry, part 2, quotes Epiphanius tearing the painted curtain (verified).

Reformed Baptist

Sources: Reformed Baptist confessional sources. Classic formulations only.

• I1 (fathers 1/4; Scripture 2/4): 1689 22.1: not worshipped ‘under any visible representations’.
• I2 (fathers 2/4; Scripture 4/4): 1689 22.2: worship ’not to angels, saints, or any other creatures’.
• I3 (fathers 3/4; Scripture n/a): Agrees with early opposition.

General Baptist

Sources: General Baptist confessional sources. Classic formulations only.

• I1 (fathers 1/4; Scripture 3/4): Rejects images in worship: Orthodox Creed 40, worship not ‘under any Visible Representations’ (verified, fresh OCR of the 1679 printing).
• I2 (fathers 2/4; Scripture 4/4): No veneration.
• I3 (fathers 3/4; Scripture n/a): Agrees with early opposition.

Anabaptist

Sources: Anabaptist confessional sources. Classic formulations only.

• I1 (fathers 1/4; Scripture 3/4): No images in worship.
• I2 (fathers 2/4; Scripture 4/4): No veneration.
• I3 (fathers 3/4; Scripture n/a): Agrees with early opposition.