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Baptism: subjects

In short
  • S02.1 Infant baptism attested from c. 200, unchallenged in principle; delay sometimes advised (low–medium)
  • S02.2 Infant communion is attested as practice by c. 251 (Cyprian); Scripture is indirect (1 Cor 11:28 is addressed to adults) (low)
  • S02.3 Baptism is the spiritual circumcision; Augustine argues from infant circumcision to infant baptism, grounded in inherited sin and apostolic custom rather than parental faith (medium)

From the study it came from: Largely agree on what baptism does; the fathers add a settled practice (infants, threefold immersion) where Scripture gives no explicit command.

Two separate measures, shown side by side; neither is combined with the other (confidence-weighted, out of 4; counts show how many of this doctrine's 3 questions each rests on; ⚠ marks coverage more than 10 points below the median, a less certain rank). This doctrine is second-order (tier weight 2). How scoring works · Scripture and tradition · Glossary · Every score with its citation

Closeness to Scripture

1 Catholic2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
2 Orthodox2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
3 Oriental Orthodox2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
4 Lutheran2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
5 Anglican2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
6 Presbyterian2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
7 General Baptist2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
8 Reformed Baptist⚠ 1/2 cells · low coverage 75% 1/3 q
9 Anabaptist⚠ 1/2 cells · low coverage 75% 1/3 q

Closeness to the fathers

1 Orthodox3/3 cells 100% 3/3 q
2 Oriental Orthodox3/3 cells 100% 3/3 q
3 Catholic3/3 cells 91% 3/3 q
4 Lutheran3/3 cells 91% 3/3 q
5 Anglican3/3 cells 91% 3/3 q
6 Presbyterian3/3 cells 82% 3/3 q
7 General Baptist3/3 cells 28% 3/3 q
8 Reformed Baptist⚠ 2/3 cells · low coverage 23% 2/3 q
9 Anabaptist⚠ 2/3 cells · low coverage 23% 2/3 q
Charts: closeness to the fathers by question, and timeline
Closeness to the fathers, by question (0–4). Hatched = not assessed in the category file. Click a question for its verdict.
01234Catholic · S02.1: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S02.14Orthodox · S02.1: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S02.1 (immersion kept)4Oriental Orthodox · S02.1: 4/4 — Infant baptism universal in the non-Chalcedonian churches4Lutheran · S02.1: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S02.14Anglican · S02.1: 4/4 — Art. XXVII: 'The Baptism of young Children is in any wise to be retained'4Presbyterian · S02.1: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S02.14Reformed Baptist · S02.1: 0/4 — 1689 29.2: only 'those who do actually profess repentance'0General Baptist · S02.1: 0/4 — SC 1660 art. 11: 'that Scriptureless thing of Sprinkling of Infants (falsly called Baptisme)'0Anabaptist · S02.1: 0/4 — Schleitheim 1: 'This excludes all infant baptism, the highest and chief abomination of the pope'0S02.1conf. low–mediumCatholic · S02.2: 2/4 — Latin practice since c. 12th c.: first communion at the age of discretion (Lateran IV canon 21, 1215: 'after they have reached the age of discernment'; verified)2Orthodox · S02.2: 4/4 — Infants communed from baptism (living practice)4Oriental Orthodox · S02.2: 4/4 — Infants communed from baptism (living practice)4Lutheran · S02.2: 2/4 — Communion after instruction (Small Catechism; practice)2Anglican · S02.2: 2/4 — 1662 BCP: none admitted to communion until confirmed2Presbyterian · S02.2: 2/4 — WLC 177: the Lord's Supper to those 'of years and ability to examine themselves' (verified)2Reformed Baptist · S02.2: not assessedGeneral Baptist · S02.2: 2/4 — Orthodox Creed (1679) art. XXXIII: 'Nor are little Infants, that cannot examine themselves ... to be admitted to this Sacrament. Though St. Austin taught so ... and many of the Greek Churches so believe and practise to this Day' (verified)2Anabaptist · S02.2: not assessedS02.2conf. lowCatholic · S02.3: 4/4 — Trent V.4: infants 'even though they be sprung from baptized parents' are baptised 'for the remission of sins', which is 'from a tradition of the apostles'. Matches the fathers' grounds; the Scripture inference goes beyond the texts4Orthodox · S02.3: 4/4 — Dositheus, Decree 16: infants are baptised because they are 'subject to original sin'. Matches the fathers' grounds4Oriental Orthodox · S02.3: 4/4 — Shenouda III, *Comparative Theology*: 'There is no doubt that baptism was symbolised by circumcision in the Old Testament'; children are baptised 'on the belief of their parents', like the eighth-day circumcision; the Coptic rite reads Luke 2:21 because 'Baptism is a spiritual circumcision' (copticchurch.net). Uses the parallel as the fathers do4Lutheran · S02.3: 4/4 — Augsburg Confession IX: 'children are to be baptized who, being offered to God through Baptism are received into God's grace'. Matches the fathers' practice and grounds4Anglican · S02.3: 4/4 — Art. XXVII: 'The Baptism of young Children is in any wise to be retained in the Church, as most agreeable with the institution of Christ'. Matches the fathers' practice4Presbyterian · S02.3: 3/4 — WCF XXVIII.4: 'the infants of one, or both, believing parents, are to be baptized'; WLC 166: such infants are 'within the covenant'. Keeps the circumcision parallel and infant baptism, but grounds it in covenant descent, which the fathers do not give as the reason3Reformed Baptist · S02.3: 2/4 — 1689 29.2: those who profess repentance and faith 'are the only proper subjects'. Accepts baptism as spiritual circumcision of believers (Justin) but rejects the fathers' infant inference2General Baptist · S02.3: 2/4 — Orthodox Creed XXVIII: believers are the 'only proper Subjects'; baptism is 'a Sign of our entrance into the Covenant of Grace'. Same as Reformed Baptist2Anabaptist · S02.3: 2/4 — Schleitheim 1: 'This excludes all infant baptism'; Menno Simons, 'Concerning Baptism' (mennosimons.net): baptism 'is no more applicable to infants, than circumcision was to the females of the Israelites'. Rejects the infant inference2S02.3conf. medium
CatholicOrthodoxOriental OrthodoxLutheranAnglicanPresbyterianReformed BaptistGeneral BaptistAnabaptistnot assessed
When the cited witnesses spoke (approximate dates) and where later traditions fixed their positions. Filled dot = consensus question; hollow orange = a question on which the fathers varied. Each item links to its source note or post-750 note.
1002003004005006007001000125015001700post-750 (compressed)Justin Martyr (c. 155) · S02.3Justin Martyrc. 155 · S02.3Irenaeus (c. 180) · S02.1Irenaeusc. 180 · S02.1Tertullian (c. 205) · S02.1Tertullianc. 205 · S02.1Cyprian (c. 252) · S02.1Cyprianc. 252 · S02.1Cyprian (c. 252) · S02.2Cyprianc. 252 · S02.2Cyprian (c. 252) · S02.3Cyprianc. 252 · S02.3Cyprian (c. 252) · S02.3Cyprianc. 252 · S02.3Augustine (c. 415) · S02.3Augustinec. 415 · S02.3Augustine (c. 415) · S02.3Augustinec. 415 · S02.3Augsburg Confession (1530) · LutheranAugsburg Confession1530 · LutheranTrent VII (1547) · CatholicTrent VII1547 · CatholicWestminster Confession (1646) · PresbyterianWestminster Confession1646 · PresbyterianConfession of Dositheus (1672) · OrthodoxConfession of Dositheus1672 · Orthodox
  1. c. 155 Justin Martyr S02.3
  2. c. 180 Irenaeus S02.1
  3. c. 205 Tertullian S02.1
  4. c. 252 Cyprian S02.1
  5. c. 252 Cyprian S02.2
  6. c. 252 Cyprian S02.3
  7. c. 252 Cyprian S02.3
  8. c. 415 Augustine S02.3
  9. c. 415 Augustine S02.3
  10. 1530 Augsburg Confession Lutheran
  11. 1547 Trent VII Catholic
  12. 1646 Westminster Confession Presbyterian
  13. 1672 Confession of Dositheus Orthodox

S2 · Baptism: subjects

Infants, or believers only.

Tier: Second-order (scoring weight 2). How the tiers were set: theological triage. Site structure: structure.

Questions

  • S02.1 Infant baptism (was baptism/B2)
  • S02.2 Should baptised infants receive communion?
  • S02.3 Is baptism the new-covenant circumcision, given to believers’ children?

Verdicts and trace

S02.1 · Infant baptism

QuestionVerdictConfidenceReasoningKey sourcesScripture (benchmark)
S02.1Infant baptism attested from c. 200, unchallenged in principle; delay sometimes advisedHigh (attested) / low–med (apostolic origin)S02.1.1 · S02.1.3 weighingcyprian-bap-s1 · tertullian-bap-s2 · irenaeus-bap-s1S02.1.4: developmental: not weighted

S02.2 · Should baptised infants receive communion?

QuestionVerdictConfidenceReasoningKey sourcesScripture (benchmark)
S02.2Infant communion is attested as practice by c. 251 (Cyprian); Scripture is indirect (1 Cor 11:28 is addressed to adults)Medium-high on practice; low on ScriptureS02.2.1 · S02.2.3 weighingcyprian-s02x-s1S02.2.4: low

S02.3 · Is baptism the new-covenant circumcision, given to believers’ children?

QuestionVerdictConfidenceReasoningKey sourcesScripture (benchmark)
S02.3Baptism is the spiritual circumcision; Augustine argues from infant circumcision to infant baptism, grounded in inherited sin and apostolic custom rather than parental faithMediumS02.3.1 · S02.3.3 weighingjustin-martyr-s02x-s1 · cyprian-s02x-s2 · cyprian-s02x-s3 · augustine-s02x-s1 · augustine-s02x-s2S02.3.4: low

Post-750 development

Which of this doctrine’s questions each tradition stays closest to, or departs from. Each row links to the tradition’s notes.

TraditionClosest to the fathers onDeparts or sharpens on
CatholicS02.1—
OrthodoxS02.1 (immersion kept)—
Oriental OrthodoxS02.1—
LutheranS02.1—
AnglicanS02.1—
PresbyterianS02.1—
Reformed Baptist—S02.1 rejected
General Baptist—S02.1 rejected
Anabaptist—S02.1 rejected

Where the tier is contested

The default tier above follows the triage criteria. These traditions place it differently, and the scores page recomputes the rankings under each tradition’s own tiers.

TraditionIts tierBasis
Reformed BaptistSecond-order2LBC XXVI.6-7, XXIX: constitutive of church membership (stays second-order but central)

Origin

Plan, overall verdict and verification status of the former baptism category (shared with the other doctrines that came from it)

Baptism

Method and conventions: docs/conventions.md. Reasoning: baptism reasoning.

1. Plan

Questions: B1 regeneration; B2 infants; B3 mode; B4 necessity. Sources: Didache 7; Justin, 1 Apol. 61; Irenaeus AH II.22.4; Tertullian, On Baptism; Cyprian Ep. 58; Cyril of Jerusalem, Cat. 3 and Myst. 2; Gregory Nazianzen Or. 40; Augustine, Merit and Forgiveness I and Ep. 98; John of Damascus IV.9. Planned but not yet read: Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition 21; Origen, Comm. Rom. V.9 (infant baptism “from the apostles”); Basil, On the Holy Spirit 15. Scripture: John 3:5; Acts 2:38–39; 22:16; Rom 6:3–4; Col 2:11–12; Titus 3:5; 1 Pet 3:21; household baptisms. Terms: βαπτίζω, λουτρόν, παλιγγενεσία, ἄφεσις. Method: as in justification. Do not read later sign/thing distinctions into the fathers.

2. Verdicts and trace

Weighed under the source-proximity principle: Scripture first, then the father tiers T1–T4. Verdict changes are listed in docs/proximity-changes.md.

3. Post-750 development

4. Overall verdict

Orthodox closest on all four questions. Catholic and Lutheran are next; they differ from the fathers mainly in practice on mode. Presbyterian departs most on regeneration and necessity, though it keeps infant baptism. Confidence: high.

5. Verification status

  • Verified: all entries above, plus the post-750 quotations (Trent VII, Dositheus 16, AC IX, WCF XXVIII).
  • To verify: Hippolytus, Apostolic Tradition 21; Origen, Comm. Rom. V.9; Basil, On the Holy Spirit 15; Gregory Nazianzen Or. 40.28 (age three); the Latin of Irenaeus II.22.4 and AH III.17.1; the dating of Zwingli; the status of limbo; LSB English.
  • S02.3 (2026-10-17): verified in English: Justin, Dial. 43; Cyprian, Ep. 58; Augustine, On Baptism IV.24; Trent V.4; Dositheus 16; AC IX; Art. XXVII; WCF XXVIII.4; WLC 166; 1689 29.2; Orthodox Creed XXVIII; Schleitheim 1; Menno, ‘Concerning Baptism’; Shenouda III, Comparative Theology; Coptic baptism rite (copticchurch.net). To verify: Greek of Justin, Latin of Cyprian and Augustine.