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Eucharist: presence

In short
  • S04.1 Real, objective presence; ‘figure’ and ‘sacrament’ language does not deny it (high)
  • S04.2 Real change, mode undefined; elements’ nature persists (Theodoret) (high)
  • S04.3 Split: all agree the unworthy eat to judgement; Origen and Augustine say they do not eat Christ himself, Cyprian and Chrysostom treat what they receive as the Lord’s body (medium)

From the study it came from: Agree on real presence; diverge in emphasis on sacrifice, where Hebrews' 'once for all' sits alongside the fathers' sacrificial language.

Two separate measures, shown side by side; neither is combined with the other (confidence-weighted, out of 4; counts show how many of this doctrine's 3 questions each rests on; ⚠ marks coverage more than 10 points below the median, a less certain rank). This doctrine is second-order (tier weight 2). How scoring works · Scripture and tradition · Glossary · Every score with its citation

Closeness to Scripture

1 Oriental Orthodox⚠ 1/2 cells · low coverage 100% 1/3 q
2 Catholic2/2 cells 92% 2/3 q
3 Orthodox2/2 cells 92% 2/3 q
4 Lutheran2/2 cells 92% 2/3 q
5 Anglican2/2 cells 75% 2/3 q
6 Presbyterian2/2 cells 58% 2/3 q
7 Reformed Baptist2/2 cells 58% 2/3 q
8 General Baptist2/2 cells 58% 2/3 q
9 Anabaptist⚠ 1/2 cells · low coverage 25% 1/3 q

Closeness to the fathers

1 Oriental Orthodox⚠ 2/3 cells · low coverage 100% 2/3 q
2 Orthodox3/3 cells 95% 3/3 q
3 Catholic3/3 cells 72% 3/3 q
4 Lutheran3/3 cells 64% 3/3 q
5 Anglican3/3 cells 47% 3/3 q
6 Presbyterian3/3 cells 35% 3/3 q
7 Reformed Baptist3/3 cells 35% 3/3 q
8 General Baptist3/3 cells 35% 3/3 q
9 Anabaptist⚠ 2/3 cells · low coverage 25% 2/3 q
Charts: closeness to the fathers by question, and timeline
Closeness to the fathers, by question (0–4). Hatched = not assessed in the category file. Click a question for its verdict.
01234Catholic · S04.1: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S04.14Orthodox · S04.1: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S04.14Oriental Orthodox · S04.1: 4/4 — Armenian Badarak: 'let us taste of the holy, holy and precious body and blood of our Lord ... This is life, hope of resurrection, propitiation and remission of sins' (verified)4Lutheran · S04.1: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S04.14Anglican · S04.1: 2/4 — Art. XXVIII: 'the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ', 'only after an heavenly and spiritual manner'2Presbyterian · S04.1: 1/4 — Listed under 'departs or sharpens on': S04.1 realism1Reformed Baptist · S04.1: 1/4 — 1689 30.7: Christ 'spiritually present to the faith of believers'1General Baptist · S04.1: 1/4 — SC 1660 art. 13: 'breaking of Bread'; Orthodox Creed 33: 'perpetual Remembrance' and 'Spiritual Nourishment', applied 'by Faith', rejecting transubstantiation and 'Consubstantiation' (verified, fresh OCR of the 1679 printing)1Anabaptist · S04.1: 1/4 — Dordrecht X: kept 'in remembrance of Him'; Menno: 'a living and an affecting sign' (verified)1S04.1conf. highCatholic · S04.2: 1/4 — Listed under 'departs or sharpens on': S04.2 substance metaphysics1Orthodox · S04.2: 4/4 — Listed under 'closest to the fathers on': S04.2 ('unsearchable')4Oriental Orthodox · S04.2: 4/4 — Real change; the Coptic rite speaks of 'the transubstantiation of the Bread to the Body of Christ' (verified: Bishop Mettaous, copticchurch.net), without a scholastic account of mode4Lutheran · S04.2: 0/4 — Listed under 'departs or sharpens on': S04.2 no change0Anglican · S04.2: 1/4 — Art. XXVIII: transubstantiation 'repugnant to the plain words of Scripture'1Presbyterian · S04.2: 1/4 — WCF XXIX.6: transubstantiation 'repugnant ... to common sense'1Reformed Baptist · S04.2: 1/4 — 1689 30.6 rejects transubstantiation1General Baptist · S04.2: 1/4 — No change taught1Anabaptist · S04.2: 1/4 — No change taught1S04.2conf. highCatholic · S04.3: 3/4 — Trent XIII ch. 8: 'some receive it sacramentally only, to wit sinners'; the body is truly present to all. Takes Augustine's distinction and the Chrysostom strand together; capped at 3 for a split verdict3Orthodox · S04.3: 3/4 — Dositheus, Decree 17: the Body 'enters into the mouths and stomachs of the communicants, whether pious or impious'. Follows the Cyprian–Chrysostom strand3Oriental Orthodox · S04.3: not assessedLutheran · S04.3: 3/4 — Formula of Concord, Epitome VII.16: 'not only the true believers … but also the unworthy and unbelievers, receive the true body and blood of Christ; however … for judgment'. Follows the Cyprian–Chrysostom strand3Anglican · S04.3: 3/4 — Art. XXIX: the wicked 'in no wise are they partakers of Christ: but rather, to their condemnation, do eat and drink the sign or Sacrament of so great a thing'. Follows Augustine on John 63Presbyterian · S04.3: 3/4 — WCF XXIX.8: the ignorant and wicked 'receive the outward elements … yet, they receive not the thing signified thereby'. Follows Origen and Augustine on John 63Reformed Baptist · S04.3: 3/4 — 1689 30.8: unworthy receivers 'are guilty of the body and blood of the Lord, eating and drinking judgment to themselves'; 30.7: worthy receivers feed on Christ 'spiritually'. Follows the Augustinian strand3General Baptist · S04.3: 3/4 — Orthodox Creed XXXIII: the elements 'signifie to the Faithful' Christ's body, received 'by Faith'; the unworthy 'prophane' the ordinance. Follows the Augustinian strand3Anabaptist · S04.3: not assessedS04.3conf. medium
CatholicOrthodoxOriental OrthodoxLutheranAnglicanPresbyterianReformed BaptistGeneral BaptistAnabaptistnot assessed
When the cited witnesses spoke (approximate dates) and where later traditions fixed their positions. Filled dot = consensus question; hollow orange = a question on which the fathers varied. Each item links to its source note or post-750 note.
1002003004005006007001000125015001700post-750 (compressed)Ignatius (c. 110) · S04.1Ignatiusc. 110 · S04.1Justin Martyr (c. 155) · S04.1Justin Martyrc. 155 · S04.1Irenaeus (c. 180) · S04.1Irenaeusc. 180 · S04.1Origen (c. 240) · S04.3Origenc. 240 · S04.3Cyprian (c. 252) · S04.3Cyprianc. 252 · S04.3Ambrose (c. 390) · S04.2Ambrosec. 390 · S04.2Chrysostom (c. 395) · S04.3Chrysostomc. 395 · S04.3Chrysostom (c. 395) · S04.3Chrysostomc. 395 · S04.3Augustine (c. 415) · S04.3Augustinec. 415 · S04.3Augustine (c. 415) · S04.3Augustinec. 415 · S04.3Augustine (c. 415) · S04.3Augustinec. 415 · S04.3Theodoret (c. 450) · S04.1Theodoretc. 450 · S04.1John of Damascus (c. 730) · S04.2John of Damascusc. 730 · S04.2Augsburg Confession (1530) · LutheranAugsburg Confession1530 · LutheranTrent XIII (1551) · CatholicTrent XIII1551 · CatholicTrent XXII (1562) · CatholicTrent XXII1562 · CatholicWestminster Confession (1646) · PresbyterianWestminster Confession1646 · PresbyterianConfession of Dositheus (1672) · OrthodoxConfession of Dositheus1672 · Orthodox
  1. c. 110 Ignatius S04.1
  2. c. 155 Justin Martyr S04.1
  3. c. 180 Irenaeus S04.1
  4. c. 240 Origen S04.3 · fathers varied
  5. c. 252 Cyprian S04.3 · fathers varied
  6. c. 390 Ambrose S04.2
  7. c. 395 Chrysostom S04.3 · fathers varied
  8. c. 395 Chrysostom S04.3 · fathers varied
  9. c. 415 Augustine S04.3 · fathers varied
  10. c. 415 Augustine S04.3 · fathers varied
  11. c. 415 Augustine S04.3 · fathers varied
  12. c. 450 Theodoret S04.1
  13. c. 730 John of Damascus S04.2
  14. 1530 Augsburg Confession Lutheran
  15. 1551 Trent XIII Catholic
  16. 1562 Trent XXII Catholic
  17. 1646 Westminster Confession Presbyterian
  18. 1672 Confession of Dositheus Orthodox

S4 · Eucharist: presence

Transubstantiation, mystery, sacramental union, spiritual presence, memorial.

Tier: Second-order (scoring weight 2). How the tiers were set: theological triage. Site structure: structure.

Questions

  • S04.1 Real presence (was eucharist/E1)
  • S04.2 Change and mode (was eucharist/E3)
  • S04.3 Do those who receive unworthily receive Christ’s body, or only the signs?

Verdicts and trace

S04.1 · Real presence

QuestionVerdictConfidenceReasoningKey sourcesScripture (benchmark)
S04.1Real, objective presence; ‘figure’ and ‘sacrament’ language does not deny itHighS04.1.1 · S04.1.3 weighingignatius-euc-s1 · justin-martyr-euc-s1 · irenaeus-euc-s2 · theodoret-euc-s1S04.1.4: medium-high

S04.2 · Change and mode

QuestionVerdictConfidenceReasoningKey sourcesScripture (benchmark)
S04.2Real change, mode undefined; elements’ nature persists (Theodoret)HighS04.2.1 · S04.2.3 weighingambrose-euc-s1 · john-of-damascus-euc-s1S04.2.4: not a Scripture question

S04.3 · Do those who receive unworthily receive Christ’s body, or only the signs?

QuestionVerdictConfidenceReasoningKey sourcesScripture (benchmark)
S04.3Split: all agree the unworthy eat to judgement; Origen and Augustine say they do not eat Christ himself, Cyprian and Chrysostom treat what they receive as the Lord’s bodyMediumS04.3.1 · S04.3.3 weighingorigen-s04x-s1 · cyprian-s04x-s1 · chrysostom-s04x-s1 · chrysostom-s04x-s2 · augustine-s04x-s1 · augustine-s04x-s2 · augustine-s04x-s3S04.3.4: low-medium

Post-750 development

Which of this doctrine’s questions each tradition stays closest to, or departs from. Each row links to the tradition’s notes.

TraditionClosest to the fathers onDeparts or sharpens on
CatholicS04.1S04.2 substance metaphysics
OrthodoxS04.1; S04.2 (‘unsearchable’)Dositheus borrows Latin terms
Oriental OrthodoxS04.1; S04.2—
LutheranS04.1S04.2 no change
AnglicanS04.1partly S04.1; S04.2
PresbyterianAugustine’s sign distinctionS04.1 realism
Reformed Baptist—S04.1; S04.2
General Baptist—S04.1; S04.2
Anabaptist—S04.1; S04.2

Where the tier is contested

The default tier above follows the triage criteria. These traditions place it differently, and the scores page recomputes the rankings under each tradition’s own tiers.

TraditionIts tierBasis
CatholicFirst-orderLumen gentium 11 (‘source and summit’)
LutheranFirst-orderFormula of Concord VII, the Holy Supper (article verified)
OrthodoxFirst-orderConfession of Dositheus 17 (verified)

Origin

Plan, overall verdict and verification status of the former eucharist category (shared with the other doctrines that came from it)

Eucharist

Method and conventions: docs/conventions.md. Reasoning: eucharist reasoning.

1. Plan

Questions: E1 real presence; E2 sacrifice; E3 manner of change. Sources: Didache 14; Ignatius, Smyrn. 7; Justin, 1 Apol. 66; Irenaeus AH IV.17–18 and V.2; Tertullian, Marc. IV.40; Cyprian Ep. 62; Cyril of Jerusalem, Myst. 4; Ambrose, Myst. 9; Augustine, Tract. Jo. 26 and Ep. 98; Theodoret, Eranistes 2; John of Damascus IV.13. Planned but not yet read: Chrysostom, On the Priesthood III.4; Gregory of Nyssa, Catechism 37; Augustine, Sermon 272; Gelasius, De duabus naturis. Scripture: Synoptic institution narratives; 1 Cor 10–11; John 6; Mal 1:11; Heb 7–10, 13:10.

2. Verdicts and trace

Weighed under the source-proximity principle: Scripture first, then the father tiers T1–T4. Verdict changes are listed in docs/proximity-changes.md.

3. Post-750 development

4. Overall verdict

Orthodox closest (John of Damascus is in effect the Orthodox position). Catholic is very close, adding a scholastic definition of the mode and the propitiatory precision. Lutheran matches on presence but not sacrifice. Presbyterian is furthest. Confidence: high.

5. Verification status

  • Verified: all patristic entries, plus Trent XIII ch. 4, XXII ch. 2, Dositheus 17, AC X, WCF XXIX.2 and 7.
  • To verify: Greek of Justin 66 (μεταβολή); authorship of the Mystagogical Lectures; Chrysostom, Gregory of Nyssa, Augustine Sermon 272, Gelasius; AC XXIV; Lateran IV (1215); the wider Orthodox view of mode; LSB English.
  • S04.3 (2026-10-17): verified in English: Origen, Comm. Matt. 11.14; Cyprian, On the Lapsed 26; Chrysostom, Hom. 1 Cor. 27–28; Augustine, Tract. Ioh. 26.18 and 59.1, On Baptism V.8.9; Trent XIII ch. 8; Dositheus 17; FC Epitome VII.16; Art. XXIX; WCF XXIX.8; 1689 30.7–8; Orthodox Creed XXXIII. To verify: the words printed in square brackets in the NPNF text of Tract. 26.18 against the Latin (Art. XXIX quotes the clause as Augustine’s).